What was iconoclasm

In the Byzantine world, Iconoclasm refers to a theological debate involving both the Byzantine church and state.

The controversy spanned roughly a century, during the years —87 and — In these decades, imperial legislation barred the production and use of figural images; simultaneously, the cross was promoted as the most acceptable decorative form for Byzantine churches. Archaeological evidence suggests that in certain regions of Byzantium, including Constantinople and Nicaea, existing icons were destroyed or plastered over.

Very few early Byzantine icons survived the Iconoclastic period; notable exceptions are woven icons, painted icons preserved at the Monastery of Saint Catherine on Mount Sinai, Egypt, and the miniature icons found on Byzantine coins, including those of Justinian II r. Old Testament prohibitions against worshipping graven images Exodus provided one of the most important precedents for Byzantine Iconoclasm.

The immediate causes for this crisis have been hotly contested by scholars. Icons after Iconoclasm The Iconoclastic controversy had a profound effect on the production of Byzantine images after their reintroduction in In the Middle and Late Byzantine periods, venerable icon types from earlier centuries continued to be copied, while new icon compositions also developed.

The addition of precious metal revetments, or sculpted covers, to icons was also increasingly popular in the Middle and Late Byzantine periods Brooks, Sarah.

Barasch, Moshe. Icon: Studies in the History of an Idea. Barber, Charles. Princeton: Princeton University Press, Belting, Hans. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, Byzantium in the Iconoclast Era ca. Aldershot: Ashgate, Evans, Helen C. Wixom, eds. In many ways, the destruction of a statue mimicked attacks on real people, and this aspect of iconoclasm surely remains central to the practice today.

An effect of the Iconoclastic Controversy was the revolts against Byzantine rulers began, illustrating a severe break in relations between East and West. The Iconoclasts those who rejected images objected to icon worship for several reasons, including the Old Testament prohibition against images in the Ten Commandments Ex.

What were the two opposing opinions during the Iconoclastic Controversy? Some believed the use of icons and their veneration was fine, and others felt that icons should not exist because it could lead to idolatry.

How did the rise of Constantinople contribute to Roman culture? Roman culture did not disappear because the traditions were kept alive by leaders in Constantinople. The laws and traditions lived on, flourishing through the Byzantines who lived in the East. The old laws and traditions disappeared very quickly once the Western Roman Empire collapsed.

The western laws and traditions lived on, but only through the legal system. Prince Odoacer forced Augustulus to hand over his crown, and Germanic kingdoms claimed the land. What happened to the laws and traditions of the Western Roman Empire once it fell? Today, Charlemagne is referred to by some as the father of Europe.

Jesus and Paul Constantine first helped spread Christianity. This answer has been confirmed as correct and helpful. Christians were often given opportunities to avoid further punishment by publicly offering sacrifices or burning incense to Roman gods, and were accused by the Romans of impiety when they refused.

Refusal was punished by arrest, imprisonment, torture, and executions. This is how the Papal States arouse and gave the papacy a power it had not yet had. The spread of Christianity gave the Bishop of Rome great religious and political strength and Rome became the center of Christianity. The religions that Rome had the most problems with were monotheistic—Judaism and Christianity.

Because these religions believed there was just one god, they prohibited worshiping other gods. Saudi Arabia allows Christians to enter the country as foreign workers for work or tourism, but does not allow them to practice their faith openly. Because of that Christians generally only worship within private homes. Items and articles belonging to religions other than Islam are prohibited. The Byzantine Empire faced invasions from Persians and Arabs in the seventh century, resulting in significant loss of territory.

Trade decreased and the empire experienced an economic downturn. Through the centuries, icons became increasingly widespread in Byzantium. By the late seventh century, the Church began to legislate on images. Church leaders at the Quinisext Council also known as the Council of Trullo held in Constantinople in — prohibited the depiction of crosses on floors where they could be walked on, which was understood as disrespectful.

Around this same time, emperor Justinian II incorporated icons of Christ onto his coins. These events suggest the growing importance of religious images in the Byzantine Empire at this time. Solidus of Justinian II showing Christ on one side left and the emperor on the other side right , —95, Constantinople, gold, 4. Historical texts suggest the struggle over images began in the s. According to traditional accounts, Iconoclasm was prompted by emperor Leo III removing an icon of Christ from the Chalke Gate of the imperial palace in Constantinople in or , sparking a widespread destruction of images and a persecution of those who defended images.

But more recently, scholars have noted a lack of evidence supporting this traditional narrative, and believe that iconophiles probably exaggerated the offenses of the iconoclasts for rhetorical effect after the Controversy.

Constantine publicly argued against icons and convened a Church council that rejected religious images at the palace in the Constantinople suburb of Hieria in In , the empress Irene convened a pro-image Church council, which negated the Iconoclast council held in Hieria in and affirmed the use of religious images.

The council drew on the pro-image writings of a Syrian monk, Saint John of Damascus, who lived c. Emperor Leo V, who reigned from —, banned images once again in , beginning what is often referred to as a second phase of Byzantine Iconoclasm. Theodore, abbot of the Stoudios Monastery in Constantinople, wrote in defense of icons during this time.

Evidence suggests this second phase of Iconoclasm was more mild than the first. Icon of the Triumph of Orthodoxy, c. The iconoclastic emperor Theophilos died in For reasons not entirely clear, Theodora and Theoktistos installed the iconophile patriarch Methodios I and once again affirmed religious images in , definitively ending Byzantine Iconoclasm.

Imperial and Church leaders marked this restoration of images with a triumphant procession through the city of Constantinople, culminating with a celebration of the Divine Liturgy in Hagia Sophia. The Byzantine Iconoclastic Controversy was not merely an intellectual debate, but was also an inflection point in the history of Byzantine art itself.

Emperor Constantine V, who reigned from —, rebuilt Hagia Eirene in the mid to late s.